Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation 10(4): 11 – 20
2026
ISSN: 2457-0761 (online)
Sunil Pathak1, Babita Suman2, Tekameren Walling3 and Subhalakshmi Rout4*
1Department of Botany, Government College Barsar, Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh, India
2Department of Botany, NSCBM Government College, Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh, India
3Department of Botany, Sao Chang College, Tuensang (Affiliated to Nagaland University), Nagaland, India
4Department of Life Sciences, Rama Devi Women’s University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
*Email ID: subhalakshmirout98@gmail.com; ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0000-2063-9547
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.23257116
Article Details: Received: 2026-09-01 | Accepted: 2026-10-02 | Available online: 2026-10-09
Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
Abstract: In today’s era, chronic diseases have surfaced due to unhealthy lifestyles and consumption of fast foods. This has raised interest in foods that provide benefits that go beyond just nutrition and hence, the concept of functional food is getting attention. Medicinal climbers in that aspect are a well-known source of food as well as medicine. Momordica charantia is a widely consumed medicinal climber with a record of traditional medicinal use, particularly for diabetes and metabolic disorders. In the given study, datasets from various sources have been analysed and compiled in thematic sections to review the potential of bitter gourd as a functional food and medicine. The review points out that its nutritional and therapeutic potential is attributed to diverse bioactive constituents, including cucurbitane triterpenoids, saponins, flavonoids, phenolics, polysaccharides, proteins and peptides. Among its reported activities, antidiabetic effects have received the strongest scientific attention, with experimental studies suggesting actions on carbohydrate digestion, glucose uptake, insulin secretion and signalling, hepatic glucose metabolism, oxidative stress and pancreatic β-cell protection. Preclinical studies also indicate antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, anti-obesity and anticancer properties. However, evidence for these effects, particularly anticancer and antimicrobial activities, remains largely experimental. Clinical studies of glycaemic control show promising but inconsistent results, partly due to differences in dose, formulation, plant material, study duration and preparation standardisation. Safety considerations, including potential interactions with glucose-lowering drugs and concerns regarding concentrated preparations during pregnancy, also warrant attention. Although the current evidence does not support its use as a replacement for established medical treatment, it represents a promising functional food with therapeutic potential.
Keywords: Bitter gourd, functional food, metabolic health, nutraceutical, phytochemicals, unhealthy lifestyle
Introduction
Chronic diseases have recently intensified the interest in foods that provide benefits beyond basic nutrition (Zhang et al., 2025). This has given rise to the concept of ‘functional foods’ that are generally understood as foods containing physiologically active components capable of producing health benefits when consumed as part of the diet (Essa et al., 2023). As a part of example, we can consider medicinal climbing plants that are simultaneously consumed as fruits and vegetables and are of particular interest because they occupy an interface between nutrition and traditional medicine (Mukherjee and Kumar, 2023). Momordica charantia L., commonly known as bitter gourd or bitter melon (Figure 1), is one such medicinal climber (Singh et al., 2023). It belongs to the family Cucurbitaceae and is cultivated extensively across Asia, Africa and other tropical and subtropical regions in the world (Swamy, 2023). The immature fruit has a distinctive bitter taste and is commonly consumed as a vegetable (Singh et al., 2024). In South and Southeast Asian traditional systems of medicine, different parts of the plant have been used for a variety of conditions, including diabetes and digestive disorders (Sharma et al., 2024). The biological properties of M. charantia are attributed to a complex mixture of nutrients and secondary metabolites rather than to a single compound (Xue et al., 2025). Several of the reported compounds in this plant have demonstrated biological activities in experimental systems. Among the claimed therapeutic properties, glucose-lowering activity has received the most attention (Mkhize et al., 2025). Nevertheless, the translation of these findings into clinical practice remains incomplete. Earlier clinical studies were generally small, used different preparations and often had methodological limitations. More recent systematic reviews have produced somewhat divergent conclusions, emphasising the importance of standardised preparations and well-designed randomised controlled trials. Present study was therefore undertaken to compile the data available across online and offline scientific databases and books regarding M. charantia to examine it as both a functional food and a climbing plant of medicinal use. Available datasets are examined, analysed and organised in thematic sections for easier understanding, with original photographs. Particular attention has been given to aspects like nutritional and phytochemical composition, pharmacological activities, proposed mechanisms, clinical evidence, safety and future research priorities.
Botanical description
It is an annual, slender, herbaceous climbing vine, characterised by its distinctly bitter taste and odour. (Swamy, 2023). Stems are angular, branched and pubescent. Leaves are alternate, simple, palmate and deeply lobed with 3-9 lobes with a serrate margin. Flowers are bright yellow, five-petaled, radially symmetrical and monoecious. The plant produces characteristic elongated green coloured fruits with a highly warty or ridged surface which turns yellow to orange as it matures. When fully ripe, it splits into curling segments to expose flat, oblong seeds covered in bright red sticky pulp in parietal placentation (Sharma et al., 2024). Fruit morphology, size, bitterness and colour vary considerably among cultivars and geographical populations (Figure 1).
Ethnobotanical uses
The plant has been documented as an insecticide & fungicide, as it is used for soaking seeds in water before sowing and the herbaceous stems are used in water for bathing as a remedy for skin infections (Beloin et al., 2005). Leaves and young shoots of this plant are also consumed in some regions (Muronga et al., 2021), while seeds and other plant parts have been medicinally employed. Traditional medicinal uses of M. charantia include management of diabetes, gonorrhoea, chickenpox, malaria, measles, scabies, various gastrointestinal complaints, skin disorders, fever, parasitic infections and inflammatory conditions (Sardar and Kumar, 2023; Sharma et al., 2024). The immature fruit is the principal edible portion. Depending on culinary traditions, it is consumed fresh, cooked, dried, pickled, fried, juiced or incorporated into composite food products (Bara et al., 2025).
Figure 1: Plant parts of M. charantia, (a) vine with inflorescence, (b) mature fruit and (c) transverse section of the spiky fruit showing oblong seeds covered in red pulp
Nutritional importance
Bitter gourd provides dietary fibre, vitamins, minerals and various phytochemicals while generally contributing relatively little energy compared with many staple foods (Xue et al., 2025). The fruit contains vitamin C, antioxidants, together with minerals and phenolic compounds (Abbas et al., 2026). Importantly, nutritional composition varies according to cultivar, maturity, growing conditions, geographical origin, harvesting stage and processing. Consumption of bitter gourd as a vegetable exposes the consumer to a complex food matrix containing water, fibre, nutrients and phytochemicals (Malik et al., 2026).
Secondary metabolites
The pharmacological interest in M. charantia derives largely from its diverse primary and secondary phytochemical profile.
Cucurbitane-type triterpenoids: Cucurbitane-type triterpenoids are among the characteristic secondary metabolites of M. charantia. Compounds, including momordicosides, charantosides, karavilosides, kuguasides and related triterpenoid derivatives, have been identified. Some of them are Charantin, Cucurbitacins, Kuguacins A-S, Momordicine (I, II & III), Momordicoside D, Karavilagenin A-E, Saponins, Goyasaponins and Sapogenins (Ma et al., 2010). These compounds have been investigated for glucose-lowering, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anticancer properties (Bara et al., 2025).
Steroidal saponins and glycosides: Steroidal saponins and glycosides are one of the majorly found phytoconstituents in bitter gourd. Charantin, a natural, non-nitrogenous steroidal glycoside found in fruits, is frequently discussed in relation to the plant’s antihyperglycemic properties (Desai and Tatke, 2015). Various momordicosides and related glycosides have also been isolated. Phytosterols include β-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, stearic acid, α-linoleic acid and α-eleostearic acid (Bara et al., 2025). The biological effects of these compounds may include modulation of carbohydrate metabolism and cellular signalling, although their individual contributions to clinical effects remain incompletely established.
Flavonoids and phenolic compounds: Flavonoids and phenolic compounds are important contributors to the antioxidant properties of food plants (Perumal et al., 2021). Compounds like catechin, epicatechin, kaenferol, rutin, vanillin, quercetin, luteolin, chlorogenic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, gallic acid, salicylic acid, syringic acid, ethyl gallate, naringenin, apigenin and pyrogallol (Bara et al., 2025) have been isolated and reported from M. charantia. These constituents may help neutralise reactive oxygen species (ROS) and influence inflammatory pathways (Kattah et al., 2026).
Proteins and bioactive peptides: Bitter gourd contains biologically active proteins and peptides. Some have demonstrated insulin-like, antiviral, immunomodulatory or cytotoxic effects in experimental studies (Han et al., 2024). One extensively investigated peptide is the M. charantia insulin receptor-binding peptide, mcIRBP-19. A randomised clinical study of an extract containing this peptide reported a possible glucose-lowering effect (Hsu et al., 2020), although the overall sample was small and the principal analysis produced only borderline statistical significance for fasting glucose and HbA1c.
Polysaccharides: Recent reviews describe M. charantia polysaccharides as heterogeneous macromolecules with pharmacological activities. They are basically acidic or neutral branched heteropolysaccharides made up of basic monomers like Glucose (Glu), Galactose (Gal), Arabinose (Ara), Xylose (Xyl), Rhamnose (Rha), Mannose (Man) and Galacturonic acid (Zheng et al., 2024).
Pharmacological and therapeutic values
Antidiabetic activity of M. charantia is the most extensively studied medicinal property. Experimental studies suggest that bitter gourd may improve glucose homeostasis by inhibiting carbohydrate-digesting enzymes, enhancing glucose uptake and insulin secretion, improving insulin signalling, reducing hepatic gluconeogenesis, modulating lipid metabolism, lowering oxidative stress and protecting pancreatic β-cells (Table 1). Human studies have reported reductions in fasting glucose, HbA1c, fructosamine and other glycemic parameters, although results are inconsistent (Shih et al., 2009). Differences in dose, formulation, duration and study population contribute to this variability. Research shows that M. charantia possesses notable anticancer, antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic properties in preclinical laboratory and animal models (Li et al., 2012). Its bioactive compounds may inhibit cancer-cell proliferation and induce apoptosis through mechanisms involving caspases, mitochondrial dysfunction, cell-cycle arrest and pathways such as AKT/mTOR and MAPK (Zulfiqar et al., 2026). The plant also exhibits antimicrobial (Malwal, 2026), antiviral and antiparasitic activities in experimental models (Jia et al., 2017), potentially due to its proteins, peptides, saponins and other phytochemicals. Similarly, hepatoprotective and gastrointestinal effects have been reported (Wu et al., 2021; Dahlquist et al., 2023), including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, gastroprotective and antiulcer activities.
Table 1: Overview of the proposed mechanisms contributing to the antidiabetic potential of M. charantia
Target/process | Proposed effect of M. charantia | Potential metabolic consequence(s) | Source(s) |
Inflammatory signalling | Modulation of NF-κB- and MAPK-associated pathways | Potential reduction in inflammatory responses and improvement in metabolic health | Dangi and Shrivastava, (2024) |
Insulin signalling | Modulation of insulin receptor/PI3K–Akt signaling | Potential improvement in insulin sensitivity and reduced insulin resistance | Sridhar et al., (2008) |
Intestinal carbohydrate digestion | Inhibition of α-glucosidase and related enzymes | Reduced postprandial glucose rise | Mkhize et al., (2025) |
Intestinal glucose absorption | Modulation or inhibition of glucose transport | Potential reduction in intestinal glucose absorption | Dahlquist et al., (2023) |
Lipid metabolism | Modulation of lipid synthesis and fatty-acid oxidation | Potential improvement in lipid metabolism and dyslipidemia | Bai et al., (2026) |
Liver | Suppression of hepatic of gluconeogenesis | Reduced hepatic glucose production | Wu et al., (2021) |
Oxidative stress | Antioxidant activity and modulation of cellular antioxidant defences | Protection of β-cells and metabolic tissues | Kavitha et al., (2011) |
Pancreatic β-cells | Stimulation of insulin and protection of β-cell functions | Increased Insulin availability and improved glucose regulation | Joseph and Jini, (2013) |
Skeletal muscle and adipose tissue | Enhancement of peripheral glucose uptake and utilisation | Improved glucose disposal and potential reduction in blood glucose | Shih et al., (2009); Bao et al., (2013) |
Bitter gourd as a functional food
The functional-food potential of M. charantia is attractive because the plant can be put into the diet rather than being used exclusively as a medicinal preparation (Figure 2). Potential food applications include: fresh or cooked vegetable, juice, dried fruit powder, pickles, herbal beverages, bakery products, fermented products, nutraceutical formulations and standardised extracts.
Figure 2: Culinary preparations of M. charantia, (a) fresh fruits, (b) thinly sliced circular pieces, (c) stir-fried bitter gourd and (d) bitter gourd juice
Recent research has specifically examined the use of bitter gourd and its bioactive compounds in food products and industrial applications (Mohammed et al., 2023). From a public-health perspective, incorporating bitter gourd into a diverse diet may be more appropriate than promoting highly concentrated preparations without adequate evidence on dosing and safety. Food synergy is also important. The biological effects of a whole vegetable may differ from those of isolated compounds because fibre, micronutrients, phytochemicals and the food matrix interact with digestion, absorption and metabolism.
Safety and limitations
Although M. charantia is widely consumed as a vegetable, concentrated extracts and high doses may pose safety concerns, particularly because of potential hypoglycemic effects and interactions with antidiabetic medications. Medicinal or concentrated preparations should also be used cautiously during pregnancy because of reported reproductive and maternal toxicity in experimental studies. Safety may vary according to the plant part, preparation, dose and duration of use. Current evidence is limited by small sample sizes, short study durations, lack of standardized preparations, variation in cultivars and extraction methods and the predominance of preclinical studies for many reported therapeutic effects. In addition, inconsistent findings among meta-analyses make the clinical efficacy of M. charantia difficult to establish.
Future aspects
Future research should therefore focus on chemically standardized preparations, dose-response relationships, large and long-term randomized controlled trials, pharmacokinetic and bioavailability studies, drug-interaction assessment and comprehensive long-term safety evaluation. Greater attention to gut microbiota, food-matrix effects, cultivar-specific phytochemistry and development of standardized functional foods may further clarify the nutritional and therapeutic potential of M. charantia.
Conclusion
M. charantia is more than a bitter vegetable. It is a promising bridge between traditional wisdom, everyday nutrition and modern science. Its rich phytochemical profile and particularly its potential to support glucose regulation make it an interesting functional food, while its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer and other biological activities continue to inspire research. However, much of this promise still rests on experimental evidence and stronger clinical studies are needed before therapeutic claims can be firmly established. For now, bitter gourd is best appreciated as a nutritious addition to a balanced diet, with its medicinal potential viewed as promising rather than proven. Continued research, standardisation and careful safety evaluation may ultimately transform this humble bitter fruit into a therapeutic resource.
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